An abundance of dog doodoo

These householders want to remedy the problem, hardly believe we guide to remedy the people and encourage the problem. Allowing your andiron to sit on someones lawn or on private property, could embody legion(predicate) social benefits. As concisely as someone sees a crazy In mien of their property, It Is inbred to become somewhat alarmed but also curious. Therefore, It Is a spacious opportunity to strike up a conversation and make a new friend. They may also enjoy letting their kiss grunge in both quarter of the resemblance and you might view a dog base on balls partner.Additionally, dog crap could be a enceinte tool to use against an enemy. If you strongly dis alike someone who Is very irritating, evolve hold of your dog for a stroll near their house and let your pet do the dirty work. Chances be they wont know its you and if they do, hand them this essay explaining the numerous benefits of dog poop. Besides, the world contr represents people like us Proportion s The ancestor for Responsible Dog Owners is a pargonntage chiefly based In Chicago. They feed send off of this pet peeve because home experienceers that are frustrated with the come in of poop In their yard pass on pay for a Proteins kit.They require a desoxyribonucleic acid sample of the toilet and bring it into the lab to be tested. Once they identify a DNA match, they will notify you so that you rump identify the perpetrator and carry out a fine. Therefore, I venture we are boosting the economy. With knocked out(p) us dog walkers, Portents would not experience a communication channel and m some(prenominal) people would be without their poop sampling job. In opposite respects, letting your dog poop indiscriminately can profit the homeowner as well. Manure is actually a great fertilizer and worms peculiarly enjoy it for feeding and increase. Worms help to Increase the amount of alarm and pissing that gets Into the soil.They break down organic matter, like leaves a nd grass into things that plants can SE. Worms are a great help to providing a nice, healthy garden alter with flowers and plants (l wouldnt recommend vegetables if feces are present). Granting that there Is an abundant supply of plentiful worms around the homeowners yard, they can make extra Income and sell them for freshwater fish and also as fertilizer for flowers, trees and lawns. In fact, dog feces in the yard can be very good and a laborsaving FIFO watch where they walk and play and most certainly, they will watch out not to put Just anything in their mouths.If by chance they do try and eat dog poop, it is okay, dont ret, because this could build their immune system, fighting bacteria such as E-Coli and Salmonella. Perhaps the ruffle in the yard does douse you, simply teach your kids some responsibility and make it a trade union movement that they have to do daily. Every judgment of conviction they see a neighborhood dog walking down the road, tell them to get the poo p come out ready, theres most likely a surprise waiting for them on the front lawn. Not to mention, these daily walks are great for your dog.Most dog breeds were developed with a specific purpose in mind for example, sporting, working, herding and so forth. Consequently, whether your pet is a pure bred or mixed breed, chances re he carries genetic traits that oblige him to pursue activity and adventure. Many modern day dogs dont get the opportunities to do what their breed instincts tell them to do. In addition, its a rare dog that exercises on his own, and many backyards dont provide the variety of sensory stimulation most dogs need to ward off boredom.Generally, people walk their dog for four reasons elimination, psychological stimulation, exercise and training. Dogs like to get outdoors, sniff and engage with their environment, exercise and peradventure socialize with people and dogs outside his home. It is very important to allow your whelp to stop, sniff, investigate, and mark a spot. Allowing your pet to do so is good for him mentally. Dogs gain knowledge of the world through their noses. Mentally stimulating walks will improve your dogs maturity, growth and satisfaction.At last, dog sit is in fact extremely favorable. veritable(a) though the major(ip)ity of the population would consider this a crude act and not very neighborly, I believe this method of dog walking is beneficial for the home/business owner, the dog walker and certainly the dog itself. Senseless Dog Walkers It is estimated, that there are 73 million dogs in the United-States. Each of those dogs needs to release their bowels like 20 times a day. And those twenty times, better not be on my lawn. This is a major pet peeve of mine and many other people.I hate when untactful dog walkers allow their pet to get rid of their excretion aimlessly (like in someones yard) and they do not pick it up. Most of my neighbors German Sheppard poops on my lawn, theyre foolish if they trust I wont n otice. Yes, you could assume that Im already picking up my own dogs waste, however I need a dozen food market bags to pick up re-appearing dog feces and it could take precious hours out of my day I loathe, truly loathe ignorant people who appreciate this is acceptable. It can ruin your reputation within the neighborhood, it can cause problems for the homeowner and it can also put your pet in riskiness.Allowing your pet to stimulate excrement on someones lawn or on private property, could create many social problems for yourself. As soon as someone notices a unknownr in front of their property, they will be curious but yet, dumb concerned. As a result, they will probably make a depressed comment wondering why you arent picking it up. This may ruin your chances of reservation a new acquaintance. It will most likely gain you a new enemy. Speaking of, there is a great way to get revenge against your enemy. Proteins The Solution for Responsible Dog Owners is a business primarily based in Chicago.They feed off of this pet peeve because refreshful homeowners, like myself, that are frustrated with the amount of waste in their yard, will pay for a Proteins kit. They collect a DNA sample of the feces and bring it into the lab to be tested. Once they identify a DNA match, they will notify you so that you can identify the perpetrator and administer at least a hundred dollar fine. I think we are boosting he economy, without us reacting homeowners, Proteins would not have a business and many people would be Jobless. In other words, dog excrement all over the lawn is never a blessing for the homeowner.Manure is say to be used as fertilizer and worms enjoy it especially for feeding. However, common worms growing in soil are already disgusting and slimy to have around the yard, not to mention hookworms, tapeworms and toreadors which can be found in dog feces which humans are also capable of contracting. For example, in the Four Mile Run watershed in Northern Virginia , a dog population of 1,400 is estimated to contribute about 5,000 pounds of solid waste every day and has been identified as a major contributor of bacteria in their water.Your pet may be up to date with its vaccinations, but neighborhood dogs can carry nasty diseases and worms that can accompany any dog pooh in question. The most significant reason to avoid allowing dogs to shape your face and mouth is because they could have recently come into contact with said contaminated excrement there is a chance the parasites will be passed directly into your mouth. Children are especially venerable o infection because they move to enjoy playing in the dirt, where parasites such as hookworm larvae like to lay.Young children may also put dirty hands or toys in their mouth, further increasing the chance for the consumption of infectious material. Besides, the homeowners dog can be put in uncomfortable situations and also in danger. The strange dogs walking are often unleashed and could pote ntially be vicious and outrage your pet. Lets say there is a female dog innocently minding her own business on her property and suddenly an unleashed male dog decides he wants to mate, she may not have been fixed and then she could end up carrying his puppies.That will end up causing her a lot of irritation and you several problems, including more expenses, responsibility, labor. It is good for your dog to interact with others however, only when both canines are comfortable and happy with one appearance. You certainly dont need added tautness to everyday life, especially when your pet can sense your troubles because they live off of their owners vibes. It would put your pet into a possible doggy depression stage. Finally, there are billions of logical reasons why dog owners need to pick up their pets feces no matter where it lands.Clearly no one wants to track the mess into their home, work, stores if by surprise it was clumped under the sole of their shoe. If the unknown feces a re not disposed of properly, it could potentially put your pet in danger the dog walker will gain new enemies and it could entail awed conditions for the home/business owner. Everyone needs to take this into consideration next time they bring their pet for some exercise if it defecates, be a careful owner and pick it up This will greatly help everyone in the neighborhood including yourself and your pet. Why own a pet if you cant own up to their mess?

Experience of Life

Have you ever estimation how much someone can grow and learn finished the find outs? in that respect are many factors in how people can change their temperament their way of thinking and e genuinely day grow more as a mortal. Life is excessively complex to understand, it is better to live and whoop it up all(prenominal) day to the fullest that it is where you learns more. In my opinion, I believe in what my aim says, Everyone must go through their own experiences and learn from their own mistakes. I personally have changed a lot as a person in the past twain stratums by different sprightliness experience like my graduation in college, starting a tonic job and pathetic to another country.My first impact when I unsounded that my life was changing and I had to go through young roads was my graduation day. I was with my toga and cap in a huge classroom with more than a hundred students, all seated waiting for our bachelor-at-armss full point. Upon hearing my name and h aving to climb onto the stage to receive my degree was the moment when I cognise that I was no longer a child and I became a woman with a degree from preschool teacher. The nose candy of knowing that my life was going to start to be different and I allow for start a new life as an big(a) and with a real job frame my life.The jump from world a student to becoming a professional is awesome, I am very proud of my achievements but on the other hand, I went into a dismay at not knowing what was coming next. I think that in that moment was a huge change in my life that do me mature tremendously. After I understand that my life had changed, I started my bet on of living the life that I always dreamed, to be a teacher. The era of being a head teacher had arrived. During my two years of work I was a head teacher of Nursery.The experience I had during those two years was amazing its incredible how children transmit you peace, happiness and that innocence that captures the effect o f everyone. However, some of my biggest challenges during my years of work were dealing with parents. For example, in my first year of teaching one of my students father ordered an appointment with the director and me to regain to it if I met his expectations as a teacher of his daughter. At first, I will not deny, I felt insulted because how could a parent knowing that El Jefferson is one of the best schools in Caracas and he wanted to see if her daughters teacher was professional. That experience made me grow and understand each situation and fear that parents maybe can feel having to leave their children in a school when they have only 3 years over-the-hill. At the end of the meeting the father apologized to me and congratulated me of my professionalism and the way that I took the meeting. I felt proud of myself and I gave him what he needs confidence and security. Each experience has made me grow in different ways and I sincerely appreciate. Likewise, after having complete d my two years of work experience in which I enjoy to the fullest.I started to go through some of the biggest changes in my life, moving to a new country. One of my life goals is to do a superordinate of Special Education, so I decided to do this predominate in New York City. From the moment I stepped on the United States I realized that my life was changing 360 degrees. I was leaving my family, my friends, my life in Venezuela and I was faced with something new and different different language, different culture, new friends, new place to live, etc. I can say this has been one of the strongest changes in my life that made e grow without anesthesia in too little time. Today I live alone, I cook, I do my laundry and I managed all my expenses. This is the first time that I am living alone and having my independence. I can totally say this is a unique and incredible experience. This opportunity that my parents are offering me has helped me to understand how knockout could be the li fe and if you dream for something you have to fight for it. For example, when I was at school or in college my mother was always reminding me to study or whatever, does not mean that I did not, but it is a typical clothes of mothers.Now that I am here studying to start a master in NYC, all the responsibility of homework, studies, etc. it is totally on me. For anyone, this form of life experience makes us grow up enormously and I appreciate every day in life than my parents could give me, because that is being changed me more and more as a person. In conclusion, it is difficult to lay aside on paper all those experiences, which I have gone through and have changed me as a person. Each day that passes everyone live things that secernate us forever, sometimes they are more noticeable than others. As my nanna People never stop learning no matter how old they are.

Anticipatory Socialization

Graduating amply crop students usually get very excited when they finally realize that they argon going to college soon. Anticipatory socialization can take mooring in this kind of situation, since anticipatory socialization is a process or contain wherein an individual prepares to accept new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors in a certain place or event. Looking back, I was filled with an overwhelming sense of rubor and anticipation when I realized that I was about to leave high educate and get a taste of college life.I tried to visualize the campus, my succeeding(a) professors, classmates, and other things that I would be seeing in college. Choosing a college was kind of difficult, so I did a lot of research in the earnings and asked several friends about their opinions on which university is the best to study and get my degree. When I was able to choose a school, I gathered information through the internet about the campus, the incompatible courses that the school offers, and the requirements for applicant students.I took time to go out at the colleges website and see all the information that will be helpful, such as the location of the school, facilities, curriculum, and all the information or expound that can be seen in the college website. I took the opportunity to visit the school so that I would be able to see it for myself and make an intuitive feeling whether I was going to like it there or not. I asked different people that I know about the school and the culture inside. It was summercater getting varied information and feedback from them.I even learned about the mode of clothes that most people wear to that school, so I make a mental note of shopping for clothes before I start going to that college. I was able to set my expectations already in college, and it made me feel ready to accept everything, whether it was a positive or negative thing. It was also because of my expectations that I felt excited instead of tense about joi ning a new environment and starting a new chapter of my life. Thus, anticipatory socialization greatly helps individuals in adapting, making incumbent adjustments, and evaluating whether or not a certain thing suits him or her.

Cooperative Learning Is Defined As An Interdependent Group Education Essay

Dahley ( 1994 ) identifies classroom needs that advance a comfy concerted encyclopedism purlieu in schools. Using the concerted acquisition scheme add-ons pupil accomplishment, social accomplishments, post-school success, and the use of resources. Research supports this scheme as an engaging environment for the assimilator ensuing in higher(prenominal) academic accomplishment and self-pride in pupils. This in b give the sack increases the over on the whole satisfaction of larning in pupils and promotes the desire to accomplish, either poker chip trade good as creates practical accomplishments needed in the match universe.Johnson & A Johnson ( n.d. ) advocate the impost of concerted acquisition in whatever type of course of study that meeting put to work is executable. The standards for effectual achievement in any schoolroom include the alteration of bing resources as one and only(a) of the foundations for this scheme. Furthermore, the instructor is required to unders tand the demands environing the course of study, capable, and pupils. This will let for the approximation of effectual sundry(prenominal) grouping constructions within the schoolroom. There argon quin indispensable constituents presented for instructors to see when organizing concerted acquisition groups. The first is group size. teensy groups of two to fin be most effectual, particularly with heterogenous grouping. The second constituent is group map. Functionality of a group involves coaction, job resolution, treatments, brainstorming, and sharing resources to farm at a reciprocally good finish. Anformer(a) of import aspect is group norms, which are cultivated over clip by reservation the groups and keeping them to the criterions of mutuality for accomplishment. Next, group accomplishments are required to be taught passim the procedure. T for each oneing and reenforcing the coveted accomplishments of teamwork, back uping other(a)s in the group, credence, positive actio ns, and struggle answer will non provided assist the pupils understand what is expected of them in their groups, notwithstanding these accomplishments besides transfer to other countries such as the schoolroom, school, and community. Finally, ends and regulations are to be communicated clearly to the pupils. This is of import for group building every bit good as the activities the groups must carry th scratchy together.Kagan ( 1994 ) focuses on prosecuting mutuality that involves all pupils hand in glove and non competitively. Grouping should be organise to network all group components every bit and use the assorted strengths of each member to counterbalance for any lacks. When instructors create a concerted acquisition environment to show lesson stuff to carefully selected heterogenous groups, the cooperation of pupils will increase and competitory behaviours be add together diminished. Even though competition is a average behaviour exhibited by pupils, inordinate usage of competition squirt debauch accomplishment in the schoolroom. Cooperation does non exhibit this quality. It enhances larning by making a structured acquisition environment that requires the pupil to be an active participant in the acquisition procedure, as opposed to a inactive perceiver in a schoolroom. Reducing competition in the schoolroom besides provides an s recognise for ELL pupils to take hazards they usually would non. Concerted acquisition is motivational for ELL pupils as it gives quadruplex positions within the group, it leads to deeper apprehension of the stuff, and it allows them to build cognition by detecting other pupils using higher-level thought ( Colorado, 2007 ) .The effectual execution of concerted acquisition entails five elements. The first component, positive mutuality, ensures the trust on each group member to finish the initiates. Face-to-face interaction is the 2nd, and it requires each group member to interact personally with each member in a positiv e mode. Following, the answer major power of each group member assures that the 3rd component of single work is met. The 4th, societal accomplishments, builds the environment for larning the necessary accomplishments throughout the interactions of the group every bit good as heightening accomplishments brought in from the members. Finally, group processing assesses the group through the positive and negative sentiments of the group members ( Dahley, 1994, Johnson & A Johnson, n.d. , Kagan, 1994 ) .The fortunes that allow for the usage of this scheme are illimitable. From pre-school to high school, the group interaction creates an mutuality that promotes socially responsible behaviour and increased accomplishment. When this attack is used to better linguistic communicating accomplishments, the pupils have the ability to believe at a higher degree, hear and discourse the sentiments of other pupils, and associate the stuff to their lives in a more echt manner. An illustration of an occupation affecting this scheme is the Think-Pair-Share activity ( Kagan, 1994 ) . The pupils begin by working separately on the inquiries that are disposed(p) for a specific subject, such as designation and comparing of characters in a book the category is reading. After rough 10 proceedingss, the pupils are grouped in braces where they discuss the replies to their inquiries with each other. After about five proceedingss, the braces so portion their replies with other squads or the whole group. This scheme helps ELL pupils communicate what they are believing to a schoolmate in a less baleful environment and acquire the position of other pupils.Concerted grouping has many different attacks. Groups can be picayune as braces or big as required to cannonball a extensive into the aims of the instructional activity. Ideally, they should incorporate three to five heterogenous pupils for the bulk of activities assigned. same grouping, or ability grouping, can take in some bene curbs but is by and large best to be used meagerly, particularly with ELL pupils. Grouping ELL pupils homogeneously will non let for linguistic communication increment, as they will non hold entree to the tally patterning necessary to increase their linguistic communication accomplishments. indiscriminately puting pupils in groups can be effectual every bit long as all groups can run into the instructional ends of the activity, and there is a low incidence of ELL pupils in the schoolroom. Effective arrangement in heterogenous groups requires instructors to be cognizant of the ability degrees and societal accomplishments of the pupils in social club to fit up complimentary accomplishments.Concerted grouping used to assist pupils with compose look helps pupils derive experience by working through the piece of music procedure. This is particularly good to ELL pupils. The instructor can make assorted ability groups where the stronger authors are able to assist the weaker 1s. Groups can be created to get big money the authorship procedure with prewriting, which calls for brainstorming subject thoughts. All pupils can abstemious lend to this measure. After pupils have selected a subject, they can compose their rough bill of exchange in braces. When it is clip for alteration and redaction, group members take bends reading the documents and adding remarks, inquiries, or corrections as needed until the last bill of exchange is completed. This gives pupils the experience of reading the documents of other pupils as the make-up procedure unfolds and the chance to better their ain authorship accomplishments through equal ratings.Working in little groups can assist ELL pupils larn how to work together and convey out larning chances that may hold been missed by independent work entirely. When pupils have a clear common end to work toward they can utilize their accomplishments to assist each other percolate ( Gootman, 2001 ) . By promoting effectual communicating betwe en equals to work out jobs in a reliable orderly environment, a instructor is promoting societal growing and acquisition every bit good as academic accomplishment. As pupils learn to interact efficaciously with other pupils, accepting and lending different thoughts from the group as a whole it non merely builds assurance in the pupil socially, it strengthens the sense of accomplishment in academic undertakings. For ELL pupils, this provides a safe acquisition environment for them to larn and spread out their cognitive linguistic communication accomplishments within a societal context.Using concerted larning groups non merely pay offs psychosocial accomplishments in a safe and controlled environment, but besides creates state of affairss for ELL pupils to develop their linguistic communication accomplishments through equal mold. Cooperative acquisition allows ELL pupils who may non understand a given assignment to acquire aid from equals who do. or so pupils enjoy group work, and when they work in groups it can be a manner to promote them to take part in a undertaking that may be otherwise disputing or hard for them. The drawback to this is that some pupils can merely let the others to make their work for them, but if the instructor is reflexion closely, it should be evident who is lending and who is non and the instructor can step in as needed.There is a high degree of pupil involvement with concerted grouping. All of the pupils have a undertaking and actively shrink on making their portion. They can utilize thoughts from each other to come up with a solution to their group job. Concerted behaviours occur when the pupils who are more knowing aid those who are fighting in order to finish the undertaking as a group. This allows ELL pupils to construct their linguistic communication accomplishments.

Limit on Sale of Second Homes

Today the South West is seen as a hotspot or retreat for all age groups. Its splendid landscapes and popular coastline mean that many an(prenominal) people atomic number 18 regularly tour Cornwall, leading into them buying fleck offices. notwithstanding these outsiders be pushing local anesthetics past and this is why I propose councils enforce a limit on the barter of sulfur ingleside properties in popular areas.With so many people interested in second homes the property grocery store is comfortable and prices are continuing to increase, between 2001 and 2004 in the town of Padstow property prices blush by 144% (from Halifax survey). With this in mind locals are trying to apparel in property before it bewilders too expensive, thus far so are outsiders who are willing and more able to pay more as they still stick 10% discount on council tax. Second home owners used to only have to pay 50% of council tax yet this was then raised to 90% in prepare to help subscribe to local projects.This situation is having a terrible effect on local people. Higher prices and higher taxes have to be paid which some cannot afford, resulting in people having to move away from their local area in order to stay financially stable. This then leaves another home on the market that is more analogously to become a second home.In the olive-sized fishing village of Port Isaac, now well known as the setting for television show Doc Martin, ITV, staggeringly 75% of the properties are second homes. This causes a number of appeaseal problems.During the summer roads become busy and dangerous, beaches full, environment damagedwhat can only be depict as a mere hell for locals. I had to pay 4 to park in Polzeath complained a local surfer. Also during the evenings tourist children have been a persistent problem in Polzeath. Students coming down for the summer to stay in their family or friends second homes are found congregated on the road and beach drinking, shouting and v andalising property, and this is on a nightly basis. To gain the problem nine patrol officers were stationed at Polzeath to patrol the evenings yet this was a waste of money and very annoying for local youths When we wanted to strike out we would have to stand in a spotlighted area that the police had allocated, just because others were causing trouble said a teenager from Polzeath. However when winter settles in they all return north leaving towns like Port Isaac and Polzeath to appear as ghost towns. This then leaves local businesses with no option but to close up for the winter which in like manner leaves locals unoccupied and it can be very hard to find a bloodline for the winter.As soon as winter comes the local teens are left(a) with the town to themselves and not much to do. Most travel to Wadebridge, which is about 15 minutes away, to work and to meet up with friends in town. Recently electron tube Station was built in Polzeath, a half pipe for skaters of Polzeath a nd the environ area to use and also for other teens to just hang out.This is why I think a limit on the sale of second homes in popular areas should be enforced. It would help by firstly slight second homes means more local homes at affordable prices, also larger population numbers would be maintained throughout the social class and furthermore businesses would be able to have a longer season and provide jobs through the winterAnd with all this gained we still dont loose our biggest remark from tourism that helps keep our economy going. Im not saying we stop the sale of second homes as we then would have a major gloaming in our economy but if we limit the number of second homes accessible locals will have a better lifestyle which they are entitle to and outsiders will still have the option to move here. Limiting second homes in popular areas also gives the chance to then develop house in small areas for permanent residents but also second home owners and overall improve the e conomy of the South West.

United states syria intervention

Lebanon, bomb calorimeter, Iraq, Jordan and Israel. Syria has gained independence in 1930, but al fashions had political problems. The civic war that sparked in 2011 and continued in 2012, the war completely devastated the country. much than 45,000 people were believed to be killed, most of them probably civilians. By the end of 2012 a thousands more were Injured. Ab go forth 470,000 Syrian refugees were registered with the join Nations to give civilians access to countries resembling Lebanon, Turkey, Iraq, and Jordan, while thousands of other people cross the border without registration.The united States regimen is practically bankrupt right now the financial system is on the verge of a collapse. Ever since the military campaign War on Terror which started as a result of the September 11 attack. It was a military campaign to eliminate al-Qaeda. As of today this campaign Is withal ongoing. From the beginning of the War on Terror our national debt was under sextet billion dolla rs. Today It has increased to 14. 3 trillion dollars. Thats where the taxpayer m whizys go. Finally, there is withal a strategic argument in favor of intervention.The U. S. Has o strategic interests in Syria, but it does have them in nearly all of Syrians neighbors. Turkey is a NATO ally. Kenneth M. Pollack. Pollack is stating that the U. S government really doesnt reason to interfere there because they dont have plans, they only wish to do an airstrips. History Intends to retroflex Itself, This situation Is almost the same as the on Iraq. President crotch hair administered a War on Terror. President Bush believed that Iraq had biologic weapons which proven to be false. Billions of taxpayer money has been wasted on the war.Moreover, United States alike wanted to establish democracy n Iraq. Democracy wasnt around for long, quite riots started breaking out. Sunnis and Shiite militants attacked U. S troops. Then a civil war stone-broke out between the Sunnis and the Shiites. Violence after Violence, I can announce the same fate for Syria too. I am not the only one who is opposed against this, most of our fellow Americans are too is against this, and only baseball club percent of Americans believes that united States should take military actions against Syria. With support like that no wonder Obama backed out of this.Moreover, Syria poses no threat to us. So remote no one has pointed out on how attacking Syria Is vital to the United States. The U. S military Job is to protect the security of United States, not to Intervene with other nations. Government. The United States dont seem to be seeking out Sad. There is clearly no goal here. The United States is left at large(p) for another war, wasting more of the taxpayers money. All the taxpayers money can be used in our education system, or our NASA program. The government needs to legislate our money more wisely. I also believe it is unacceptable to hike more war. As far as Im concerned, ar always i nstrument failure Jacques Circa. War solves nothing, leaders must find peaceful way to resolve their issues, and therefore war only brings pain and violence to peoples lives.

Personnel Management and Organizational Behavior Essay

Four ways to shape employee bearing argon positive reinforcement, ban reinforcement, punishment, and extinction. Positive reinforcement is following a reaction with something enjoyable (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Employees expect recognition for exceeding the faces standard on occupation performance. A well-organized reward program willing motivate employees to excel the boldnesss standard. Example of this are employee of the month, quarter or year, and recognitions to employees for presenting ideas to improve the organizations operation.Negative reinforcement is also referred as looking occupy. Supervisors should explain the task to the employee, provide necessary resources, and image the work is performed to standard. These actions will help eliminate negative reinforcement. penalisation and knowing the organizations standard are directly link. The organizations standard, duties and responsibilities of the employees throw to be established in ensnare to hold employees acc ountable for their incorrect manner. Punishment can be used as the way to unsure employees follows the standard. The unalike type of punishments have to be allowd in the workplace insurance to break the employee knows what could happen if he/she does non follow the standard.Extinction is a behavior not reinforced, causing it to disappear (Robbins & Judge, 2007). Adequate supervision and conference in the workplace are two key elements to assess this behavior and eliminate when is not needed. Managers have to develop ways to shape employees behavior in order to improve performance. Shaping the employees behavior starts with adopting practice that encourage employees to be responsible, loyal, and committed to an organizations last (Strategic Planning in the Payroll Department, 2007). Some of these practices include setting standards, establishing duties and responsibilities, and direct supervision. Discuss the three comp championnts of an attitude.The main components of an atti tude are cognitive, affective, and behavioral. Cognitive component is a consciously held opinion or notion (Colborn, 2007, p. 68), such as sexual harassment is wrong. Managers should enforce values, soaring standard, group and cultural behavior awareness to improve the working environment. The affective component is the emotional tone or feeling of an attitude (Colborn, 2007) I dont like Charles, because he harasses his female employees. Leaders should keep reach communication with their employees to let them express their feelings and emotions. Behavioral component is the cloaked to behave in a certain way toward something or soulfulness (Robbins & Judge, 2007), such as Im going to avoid Charles because of his indecorous conduct. This action could cause problems in the work group and if not handle properly it will set a bad precedent to the employees.In conclusion leaders should understand the components of an attitude in order to establish means to avoid these in the work ing environment. Enforcing values, high standards, open communication and continues supervising are key to success. How is bounded rationality related to decision making?Bounded rationality is defined as making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity (Robbins & Judge, 2007, p. 161). This idea used a method where a satisfactory solution is flummoxed in stade of the optimal solution. This approach is driven by previous experiences, limited entropy and selecting the first solution that satisfies the constraints.Decision-making process is a detail process to obtain the trump solution. During this process all alternatives and courses of action are considered and evaluated completely. This approach consumes epoch and resources because every alternative has to be evaluated in order to obtain the best solution.In my opinion the decision-making process should be exercise as some(prenominal) as possible in order to obtain the optimum solution to a problem. Leaders should be aware of both approaches and select one based on time, safety concerns, priority of the task, and resources available. What is a quality association?Quality circle is a work of employees and supervisors, who meet regularly to dissertate their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions (Robbins & Judge, 2007, p. 237).A fortunate quality circle should include the following a comptroller, individual assignment, tentative times, progress report, implementation and performance monitoring. The comptroller will be in charge of conducting the coming upons, keeping record of the problems, progress and implementation. Problems should be brainstorm by the group and assigned to the best qualify employee. Each problem should have a tentative time to obtain a solution. During each meeting a progress report is required in order to ensure timely solution of the problem. Implementing the solution and monitoring its performance will ensure employees satisfaction and develop credibility to the quality circle. The end contestation of the quality circle is to fix problems in the organization.

Explore The Ways In Which Susan Hill Presents The Woman In Black

Explore the centerings in which Susan pitchers mound presents the cleaning lady in black. Before we meet the adult female, Susan Hill drops the description of the setting in A London Particular to foresee what she is like, predicting something wicked. London was described as funny farm full of red-eyed and demonic ghostly figures. These all suggest that Hill was describing or comparing London to Hell, which could imply that Mr Arthur Kipps was about to enter into his own personalized hell, containing a ghostly figure of haunting and torment.Hill uses Londons filthy, lousiness smelling fog that choked and blinded the Londoners as a way to pre-empt the sea mist that appears later in the novel, in The Sound of a Pony and Trap. They both engulfed their surroundings like a head covering of mystery and poor. The fog could have as puff up as suggested that Kipps was unaware of the Hell in his near future, he could non see what lay in reckon of him. There is a possibility the fog was a metaphor for the impend suffering and misfortune that lay ahead for Arthur Kipps.The Funeral of Mrs Drablow is a crucial chapter in the novel as this is the first time the woman is seen and mentioned. Kipps describes her as a woman dressed in the deepest black and wearing a toughie which seemed to have gone out of fashion, which suggests straight away that the woman is out of place, not only at the funeral, but as well as in that time period. Her clothes were a little rusty looking and this gives the imagination that her clothes are ageing, which links with her alienation from the rest of the funeral attendants.She is described as having a terrible wasting disease with the thinnest layer of flesh tautly stretched and strained across her bones. Her face was pathetically wasted extremely pallid and gaunt with almost a blue-white sheen. This all gives a spirit of a ghost, the whole portrayal sounding ghoulish. Kipps instantly feels sympathy towards the woman, as he refers to her as a not inconsiderable former viewer and poor thing. This is highly argumentationed to how she was anticipated from the London setting.The womans haunting effect on her victims is shown through Mr Jerome and his reaction. Arthur Kipps had merely mentioned her physical appearance,before Mr Jerome halt dead. She has the power to scare a grown man to the core without beingness seen. The woman seemed to bring inextricable memories to Jerome that leave him, frozen, pale and paralysed with absolute terror. This is alike shown in the way Kipps acts in Christmas Eve. The thought of the woman sends him into a devotion of agitation all those years later. The woman was an inextricable part of his past. She leaves her victims with a horror that is now woven into their very fibres.The woman next appears in the small burial ground behind Eel Marsh House in Across The Causeway. Kipps became suddenly conscious of the extreme bleakness and ghostliness of the burial ground. This gives the impression that even before he sees the woman, Arthur is aware of the criminal atmosphere that she brings with her. Hill uses the presentation of the unsettling setting and atmosphere in the burial ground, to show that her presence is overwhelming and she is a malignant character.Hill then goes on to describe the woman as one with a pallor not of flesh so often as bone itself. This shows that, similar to his tint at the funeral, Kipps hush up pities the woman. However, this emotion alters virtually instantly. He notices her expression of fervent malevolence. She looked as though she was searching for something she wanted, needed-must have. Here, Hill presents the malevolent side to the woman, opposed at the funeral, where Kipps sees the woman as a pathetic figure.She uses an immediate contrast between the way Kipps felt previously and the feelings he felt towards the woman in the burial ground, the pity to sheer horror in a matter of sentences. This is effective because i t changes the feel of the novel and it also links to the diabolical setting of London in A London Particular. This same facial expression caused not only Arthurs mind but also his body, to become possessed and out of control. He had become paralysed by her aura. Hill uses the deep description about how Kipps is feeling as a substantive way to create an ominous atmosphere.In In The Nursery, Kipps was lulled into a pretended sense of security before he entered the childs spiel room. He heard the noise within the room that meant comfort and guard the sound of the wooden runners of a rockingchair. Hill uses the softness and sweetness of Arthurs memory to contradict the fear and shock he feels when he sees the glasshouse in shambles. The great difference between these two moods makes the obliteration of the babys room and the womans revenge more powerful and impactful.Susan Hill also presents the woman by using the weather to foreshadow how she acts in the side by side(p) chapter . The wildness, violence, strength and intensity of the woman is shown through the thick cloud craft low over the marshes, stronger wind and raw coldness.The womans yearning malevolence was finally fulfilled in A mailboat of Letters when she turned the childs nursery from being in such good order to a state of disarray. The end of the room was described as being caused by a clustering of robbers which shows that the woman, who was originally portrayed as a frail, extremely pale juvenile woman, suffering from some terrible wasting disease, had so much anger, such violence and disgust building inside her that she was able to manoeuver the same amount of destruction as a gang of condemnable men, the clothes dragged out of the cupboard like entrails from a wounded body.The powerful imagery shows the woman as a vicious murder, change shape on mad, senseless destruction. She was unable to bear the fact that Nathaniel would never use the nursery again, and she was so bitter that a fter sixty years had passed, she was still causing havoc.To conclude, Susan Hill presents the woman in black as the malicious ghost of a young spiteful woman full of hatred and hungry for revenge. She does this using contrast in atmosphere, weather and setting, as well as her appearance and actions throughout the novel. The actions of revenge she takes are ones of pain and suffering for others, she wishes for them to feel the same as she does. Her actions are understandable, but under no circumstances are they forgivable.

Wal-Mart Marketing Strategy

In the first class in Intensive in Ameri plenty Business, we discussed the reading assignment John D. Rockefeller and the Modern Corporation in Forbes. During the discussion, the professor mentioned Wal-Mart, a well-kn take in retailer that owns large sum up chain as The Standard anele Company did to achieve its success. Being the largest retailer in the world, however, Wal-Mart whitethorn be relatively unfamiliar to students like me from mainland China since it does non land here even though it planned to do so.In fact, it was in truth my trip to China several years ago that polish offs my first eliminate with Wal-Mart. And after the class, I started to wonder, with the outstanding supply chain system, how and why could Wal-Mart enlistment its step developing in Taiwan? Does this fact mean that a well-nighly wonderful supply chain doesnt mean everything in market? So, does this also show that maybe under certain circumstances, Rockefeller and his companionship cannot accomp lish such(prenominal) success? Save Money. Live Better.Wal-Mart, the largest retailer in the world, owns a huge supply chain as The Standard Oil Company did, which enables Wal-Mart to provide the cheapest products to its customers and makes its success. As The Standard Oil Company radiate its supply chain by from setting up barrel-making operation to coercive transportation problems including terminal wargonhouses and pipeline networks, Wal-Mart combines the supply chain from transporting and delivering to ordering and purchasing, which more than often than not reduce the logistics make ups and allow Wal-Mart to supply customers with the best price.To be more specific, for example, when linking up the suppliers, Wal-Mart provides them a system that can be directly entered by suppliers so as to realize the selling situation, predict the demanding amount of products, and make up ones mind the producing amount. In this supplying chain, Wal-Mart ought to make the whole supplying chain a very smooth, fluent, and steady one to save much money. Dedication to kindness However, like the resistances Rockefeller had encountered owing to the monopoly of the market, the protests against Wal-Mart are also occurring in not moreover America but the world.For instance, a documentary named WAL-MART The High salute of commencement Price points out several disadvantages brought by this huge retailer such as cheap labors without insurance and welfare, bad working environment and, what may causes the near attentions of other similar industries, the opportunities being taken away by Wal-Mart from local gauzy-scale industries. Probably because of this, in my personal opinion, Wal-Mart dedicate to charities to make the public think that it do carry out corporate amicable responsibility and to increase the reputation so that they can eliminate, or at least decrease, the protest against it. Both Rockefeller and Wal-Mart actually fail to entirely quell public resentful tho ugh. ) Wal-Mart in Taiwan So, the problem that attracts my attention most is that in my home country Taiwan, we have certain wholesalers like Costco and crossroad and retailers like Wellcome and PXmart. Nevertheless, Wal-Mart, the largest retailer in the world, has never landed here even though it had planned to develop from the southern part of Taiwan by merging. Why? To my personal viewpoint, there are two main reasons of this sort out basing my observation and analysis.First, the market for no matter retailing or wholesaling in Taiwan has already saturated. Even Carrefour, the market share champion in wholesaling in Taiwan, is having difficulties in its expansion. Not to mention the earlier comer Costco who has prevail the market of import goods. When most people in Taiwan, like my family, typify to spoil plentiful imported goods, they would most likely opt to purchase at Costco. If Wal-Mart, a similar store to Costco, enter the market in Taiwan now, people are certain to compare both of them.And it is likely that customers already have their loyalties and would tend to choose Costco, the store they are employ to instead of Wal-Mart, the one that they are still unfamiliar with. Consequently, only when Wal-Mart supplies close to exclusive businesses or comes out with other attractive strategies can it be competitive and able to compete with the wholesalers that are already in Taiwan now. In addition, because of the geographic reason in Taiwan, which is a comparably small island with crowded people, it seems that it is more suitable for small supermarkets to thrive here.For one thing, the cost of the estate here would be expensive since Wal-Mart is undoubtedly required to own a vast place for it to be built. Whats more, it is not that prerequisite for people in this crowded island to drive far away to buy groceries. Instead, they can simply walk to the supermarket around the street corner near their homes. For example, popular retailers, especially PXmart, claims to provide the cheapest price to their customers and that by the VIP system, customers can become VIPs for free and save every dollars in each of their purchase.Sometimes the prices are even lower than the ones in wholesale shops such as Costco. Moreover, they free like almost anytime and anywhere. That is to say, people in Taiwan do not actually have that much demand on the existence of such a large market place like Wal-Mart. Currently, Wal-Mart finally converts its ducking to the expansion of the relatively potential market in China. In sum, in my point of view, even though Wal-Mart owns a complete and beneficial supply chain system that operate well in the U. S. nd umpteen part of the world, it is not an a-hundred-percent promise to guarantee that it will work no matter when and where. The conditions in the market, the consumption habits of customers, and the competitors of yours are significant considerations as well. In other words, it is always essential for businesses to evaluate the market circumstances before they invest their money in a new place. (WAL-MART The High Cost of Low Price teaser trailer on YouTube http//www. youtube. com/watch? shoot a line=player_embedded&v=hiSmlmXp-aU)

Physiological and psychological responses Essay

Attainment demonstrates be an classic aspect of measuring experience demonstrated or the outcomes that following instructions in a special program. Intelligence tests determine an individuals abilities being a reproach of experience gained in other means non necessarily voice of school curriculum. However, examinee achievement in these tests has been noted to vary from wholeness kind of environsal setting to the other due to a name of both surroundal and examinee factors (Pinku & Birenbaum, 1997)..For instance, environmental factors much(prenominal) as climatical stress due to global warming have over meter impacted greatly on the conditions under which psychological tests argon taken. visitation environments vary substantially from place to place and also due to the cognitive demands of an assessment task. Recently, there have been extensive studies conducted to analyze the impact of test environments on mental performance. Much emphasis has especially been laid on t he test environments that impact negatively on performance in tests and which be responsible for the misrepresentation of the competence of anes mind. ladder disturbance Test anxiety encompasses the behavioral, physiological and psychological responses that reflect apprehension regarding a possibility of failing during an evaluative test. Studies have indicated that there is a take up correlation surrounded by test anxiety and poor test tons (Gregory, 1996). However, there are two categories of test anxiety (1) those who suffer from officious thoughts during an exanimation and which compromise performance and (2) those who suffer from the inability to fix by organizing the inevitable schooling for recall when taking a test.The first category is referred to as the interference model while the second is referred to as the skill dearth model. According to research, test anxiety due to the inability to organize and learn essential information could be enhanced by inadequate correction behaviors. This leads to poor scores since the examinee never learns the necessary material and which is the nigh basic requirement for good performance. Thus, test anxiety in such an occasion is usually exacted by unpreparedness and not performance decline per se (Holahan & Culler 1980).With reference to the condition of interfering thoughts, high anxiety leads to responses and thoughts that are not relevant to the test and these occupy much of the processing space in the mind. Competition for processing space by these responses affects the test related responses that are important for succeeding in an evaluation test. This leads to poor performance as test anxiety causes problems in recalling test-relevant information learned due to the maladjustive responses associate with contradictory thoughts.Studies have shown that the test examiner stinker dish out the examinees in handling test anxiety by encouraging and service of process them to free before administeri ng the test. Preparing adequately before a test can help learners to avoid studying at the last minute which increases anxiety. being at the examination room quite on time and mentation about what ones knows about the subject being tested kinda than what one does not know also helps reduce anxiety. Concentrating on the positive rather than negative and irrational thoughts can help in maintaining the mind at peace and hence reducing anxiety.It is also necessary that stressful tasks or situations are not scheduled just before one takes a test. Climatic Stress The physical conditions in which an examinee takes a test has an immense impact on the tests score. For instance the environmental conditions such as high temperatures and humidity in the tropical vicinity where close to two-thirds of the whole world population take their tests are unfavorable. It is important to note that systems that can correct such imbalances are not ever so available to every examinee.In the tropics for instance, examinees take tests in an environment with high and uncomfortable heat and high humidity. Current studies indicate that environmental stressors like high humidity and temperate can by impairing mechanisms such as selective attention and short-term memory affect performance negatively. According to Auliciems (1972), the short-term memory is paramount for the basic processing of information during a test. On the other hand, selective attention is a requisite for performing successfully in a psychological test.These aspects of the mind are essential in enabling the examinee to rule out stimuli that is irrelevant to the test task especially when an examinee ought to think laterally (Gregory, 1996). presumption their importance in influencing test scores, these two domains selective attention and audile short-term memory have been studied through the Stroop and Digit pas de deux tests respectively and found to impact negatively on performance if distorted. case of uncomfor table environmental stress, the administration can ensure a causative environment by installing the appropriate corrective measures such as air conditioning systems.Other factors such as hostility between the examiner and examinee which can significantly distract the two domains or block concentration can be effectively handled by desire help from a mentor or a counselor. This helps the examinee to relax and take the test positively. It is indeed important that the mind as comfortably as the body work in the most conducive environment for impressive test results to be attained.References Auliciems, A. (1972). Some observed relationships between the atmospherical environment and Mental work. Environmental Research, 5, pp. 217-240. Gregory, R. J. (1996). Psychological testing History, principles, and applications (2nd Ed. ). Needham Heights, MA Allyn & Bacon. Holahan, C. J. , & Culler, R. E. (1980). Test anxiety and academic performance The effects of study related behaviors. journ al of Educational Psychology, 72, pp. 16-20. Pinku, P. , & Birenbaum, M. (1997). Effects of test anxiety, Information organization, and testing situation on performance on two test formats. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 22, pp. 23-38.

Central Processing Unit and Memory Location

MICROPROCESSOR 8085 destination Book Ramesh S. Goankar, Microprocessor Architecture, Programming and Applications with 8085, 5th Edition, scholar H all told in all calendar week 1 Basic C at one(a) timept and Ideas close to Microprocessor. calendar week 2 Architecture of 8085 Week 3 reference working Modes and focus passel of 8085 Week 4 Interrupts of 8085 Week 5 onwards Peripherals. Basic Concepts of Microprocessors Differences between personal computer a computer with a microprocessor as its CPU. Includes remembrance, I/O etcetera Microprocessor silicon bridle which includes ALU, memorialise licks & control circuits Microcontroller silicon chip which includes microprocessor, reminiscence & I/O in a wizard package. What is a Microprocessor? The book of ac look comes from the combine micro and processor. Processor means a winding that processes whatever. In this context processor means a de debility that processes song, unique(predicate)ally binary computer design spots, 0s and 1s. To process means to bullshit. It is a universal term that describes all manipulation. Again in this content, it means to perform trusted trading subprograms on the amounts that depend on the microprocessors design.What ab reveal micro? Micro is a new put upition. In the late 1960s, processors were make victimization discrete elements. These devices performed the striked public inaugurateation, but were in analogous manner prodigious and too slow. In the early 1970s the microchip was invented. both of the components that made up the processor were now dis gear up on a champion humankind of silicon. The size became several(prenominal) thousand prison terms minusculeer and the speed became several hundred times faster. The MicroProcessor was born. Was at that place ever a miniprocessor? no(prenominal) It went directly from discrete elements to a single chip. However, omparing todays microprocessors to the ones bu ilt in the early 1970s you strike an extreme increase in the amount of integration. So, What is a microprocessor? exposition of the Microprocessor The microprocessor is a programmable device that draw backs in turns, performs on them arithmetic or logical operations according to the program line of descentd in computer storage and therefore comes a nonher(prenominal) morsels as a issuance. explanation (Contd. ) stops expand one at a time of the underlined book of accounts Programmable device The microprocessor stand perform variant mountains of operations on the selective information it receives depending on the date of dictations supplied in the given program.By changing the program, the microprocessor manipulates the information in different ways. instruction manual Each microprocessor is designed to ca affair a special(prenominal) root of operations. This group of operations is called an commission set. This counsel set defines what the microproce ssor nominate and earth-closetnot do. Definition (Contd. ) Takes in The selective information that the microprocessor manipulates mustiness come from somewhere. It comes from what is called remark devices. These be devices that bring info into the brass from the outside world. These represent devices much(prenominal)(prenominal) as a keyboard, a mo design, switches, and the like.Definition (Contd. ) fleshs The microprocessor has a very narrow absorb on life. It bear understands binary topics. A binary digit is called a issue (which comes from binary digit). The microprocessor recognizes and processes a group of opuss to stick toher. This group of kidnappings is called a word. The way out of bits in a Microprocessors word, is a measure of its abilities. Definition (Contd. ) Words, Bytes, etc. The earliest microprocessor (the Intel 8088 and Motorolas 6800) recognized 8-bit words. They processed training 8-bits at a time. Thats why they argon called 8-bit pro cessors.They female genital organ holdle large figs, but in revisal to process these modus operandis, they broke them into 8-bit pieces and processed for apiece one group of 8-bits separately. Later microprocessors (8086 and 68000) were designed with 16-bit words. A group of 8-bits were referred to as a half-word or byte. A group of 4 bits is called a nibble. Also, 32 bit groups were given the name long word. Today, all processors manipulate at least 32 bits at a time and on that point exists microprocessors that stooge process 64, 80, 128 bits Definition (Contd. ) Arithmetic and logical system operations both microprocessor has arithmetic operations such as add and subtract as part of its instruction set. Most microprocessors impart have operations such as multiply and divide. Some of the newer ones exit have complex operations such as squargon root. In addition, microprocessors have logic operations as well. Such as AND, OR, XOR, shift unexpended, shift in force(p), etc. Again, the enactment and types of operations define the microprocessors instruction set and depends on the specific microprocessor. Definition (Contd. ) Stored in remembering First, what is wargonhousing? shop is the perspective where in formation is kept while not in current mathematical function. depot is a collection of storage devices. Usually, to each one storage device holds one bit. Also, in intimately kinds of retention, these storage devices ar group into groups of 8. These 8 storage sides roll in the hay scarce be approached together. So, one finish nevertheless read or write in terms of bytes to and form reposition. retrospection is ordinarily measurable by the number of bytes it fag hold. It is measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas. A Kilo in computer wrangle is 210 =1024. So, a KB (KiloByte) is 1024 bytes. Mega is 1024 Kilos and Giga is 1024 Mega. Definition (Contd. ) Stored in remembering When a program is entered int o a computer, it is stored in reminiscence. thus as the microprocessor starts to execute the book of instruction manual, it brings the operating book of instructions from retrospection one at a time. retentiveness is also utilize to hold the information. The microprocessor reads (brings in) the data from remembering when it needs it and writes (stores) the results into computer retentiveness when it is done. Definition (Contd. ) Produces For the economic consumptionr to see the result of the execution of the program, the results must be presented in a human readable form. The results must be presented on an getup device. This derriere be the monitor, a paper from the printer, a dim-witted LED or m whatsoever other forms. A Microprocessor-based systemFrom the above description, we preserve draw the pursual block diagram to represent a microprocessor-based system comment Output remembering Inside The Microprocessor Internally, the microprocessor is made up of 3 main units. The Arithmetic/Logic Unit (ALU) The Control Unit. An array of historys for retentiveness data while it is being manipulated. Organization of a microprocessorbased system Lets expand the picture a bit. I/O introduce / Output ALU recital Array System Bus retentivity fixed storage dash Control reminiscence depot stores information such as instructions and data in binary format (0 and 1).It provides this information to the microprocessor whenever it is needed. Usually, there is a computer reminiscence sub-system in a microprocessor-based system. This sub-system includes The renders inside the microprocessor Read besides recollection (ROM) apply to store information that does not change. Random get at retrospection ( push) (also known as Read/ put out retention). determinationd to store information supplied by the user. Such as programs and data. retention lay out and mentiones The reposition board map is a picture representation of the a pproach ar part and shows where the different reposition chips be located within the orchestrate range. 000 0000 erasable programmable read-only store 3FFF 4400 appeal crop of EPROM assay appendress Range pile 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 wrap up Range of initiatory RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 visit Range of 2nd RAM Chip 8FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of third RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF Address Range of 4th RAM Chip Memory To execute a program the user enters its instructions in binary format into the remembrance. The microprocessor then reads these instructions and whatever data is needed from holding, executes the instructions and places the results all in memory or produces it on an output device. The triple calendar method instruction execution model To execute a program, the microprocessor reads each instruction from memory, interprets it, then executes it. To use the right names for the cycles The microprocessor fetches each instruction, decodes it, consequently executes it. This sequence is continued until all instructions argon performed. Machine phraseology The number of bits that form the word of a microprocessor is fixed for that particular processor. These bits define a maximum number of combinations. For showcase an 8-bit microprocessor bed have at most 28 = 256 different combinations. However, in most microprocessors, not all of these combinations are apply. Certain patterns are chosen and charge specific meanings. Each of these patterns forms an instruction for the microprocessor. The complete set of patterns makes up the microprocessors mechanism language. The 8085 Machine Language The 8085 (from Intel) is an 8-bit microprocessor. The 8085 uses a amount of money of 246 bit patterns to form its instruction set. These 246 patterns represent only 74 instructions. The reason for the difference is that some (actually most) instructions have eightfold different formats. Because it is very difficult to enter the bit patterns corr ectly, they are commonly entered in hexadecimal instead of binary. For showcase, the combination 0011 1100 which translates into increase the number in the file called the accumulator, is usually entered as 3C. Assembly Language incoming the instructions using hexadecimal is quite easier than entering the binary combinations. However, it chill out is difficult to understand what a program written in hexadecimal does. So, each company defines a symbolic code for the instructions. These codes are called mnemonics. The mnemonic for each instruction is usually a group of letters that rede the operation performed. Assembly Language utilise the same example from before, 00111100 translates to 3C in hexadecimal (OPCODE) Its mnemonic is INR A. INR stands for increment immortalize and A is brusque for accumulator. Another example is 1000 0000, Which translates to 80 in hexadecimal. Its mnemonic is land B. Add history B to the accumulator and keep the result in the ac cumulator. Assembly Language It is important to remember that a machine language and its associated conference language are completely machine dependent. In other words, they are not transferable from one microprocessor to a different one. For example, Motorolla has an 8-bit microprocessor called the 6800. The 8085 machine language is very different from that of the 6800. So is the assembly language. A program written for the 8085 atomic number 50not be executed on the 6800 and vice versa. Assembling The Program How does assembly language get translated into machine language? there are twain ways 1st there is paw assembly. The programmer translates each assembly language instruction into its tantamount(predicate) hexadecimal code (machine language).Then the hexadecimal code is entered into memory. The other possibility is a program called an assembler, which does the translation automatically. 8085 Microprocessor Architecture 8-bit general decide p Capable of prognosticateing 64 k of memory Has 40 pins Requires +5 v power supply so-and-so operate with 3 MHz measure 8085 upward compatible Pins Power Supply +5 V relative frequency Generator is attached to those pins Input/Output/ Memory Read frame Multiplexed Address info Bus Address lock Enable Address Bus System Bus wires connecting memory & I/O to microprocessor Address Bus Unidirectional Identifying peripheral or memory localization data Bus Bidirectional shippingring data Control Bus Synchronization signals quantify signals Control signal Architecture of Intel 8085 Microprocessor Intel 8085 Microprocessor Microprocessor consists of Control unit control microprocessor operations. ALU performs data processing function. Registers provide storage intragroup to CPU. Interrupts Internal data mickle The ALU In addition to the arithmetic & logic circuits, the ALU includes the accumulator, which is part of every arithmetic & logic operation. Also, the ALU include s a temporary register used for holding data temporarily during the execution of the operation. This temporary register is not accessible by the programmer. Registers General Purpose Registers B, C, D, E, H & L (8 bit registers) Can be used singly Or groundwork be used as 16 bit register gibes BC, DE, HL H & L can be used as a data pointer (holds memory verbalize) Special Purpose Registers accumulator (8 bit register) Store 8 bit data Store the result of an operation Store 8 bit data during I/O transfer storage battery droops B C D E H L Program reciteer troop Pointer Address 6 8 selective information Flag Register 8 bit register shows the status of the microprocessor before/ later an operation S (sign signal flag), Z ( set flag), AC (auxillary gestate flag), P (parity flag) & CY (carry flag) D7 S D6 Z D5 X D4 AC D3 X D2 P D1 X D0 CY Sign Flag Used for indicating the sign of the data in the accumulator The sign flag is set if negative (1 negative) The sign flag is readjust if positive (0 positive) naught Flag Is set if result obtained after an operation is 0 Is set quest an increment or decrement operation of that register 10110011 + 01001101 1 00000000 take for Flag Is set if there is a carry or borrow from arithmetic operation 1011 0101 + 0110 1100 Carry 1 0010 0001 1011 0101 1100 1100 Borrow 1 1110 1001 Auxillary Carry Flag Is set if there is a carry out of bit 3 Parity Flag Is set if parity is veritable(a) Is cleared if parity is odd The Internal Architecture We have already discussed the general purpose registers, the aggregator, and the flags. The Program antipathetic (PC) This is a register that is used to control the sequencing of the execution of instructions. This register unendingly holds the speech communication of the next instruction. Since it holds an spread over, it must be 16 bits wide. The Internal Architecture The Stack pointer The dope pointer is also a 16-bit register that is used t o point into memory. The memory this register points to is a special area called the quid. The stack is an area of memory used to hold data that testament be retreived soon. The stack is usually accessed in a Last In First Out (LIFO) fashion. Non Programmable Registers counselling Register & Decoder pedagogy is stored in IR after fetched by processor Decoder decodes instruction in IR Internal quantify generator 3. 125 MHz internally 6. 5 MHz outwardly The Address and data Busses The overlay bus has 8 signal lines A8 A15 which are unidirectional. The other 8 traverse bits are multiplexed (time shared) with the 8 data bits. So, the bits AD0 AD7 are bi-directional and serve as A0 A7 and D0 D7 at the same time. During the execution of the instruction, these lines carry the address bits during the early part, then during the late parts of the execution, they carry the 8 data bits. In put up to separate the address from the data, we can use a lock to save the p rise before the function of the bits changes. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 From the above description, it becomes frank that the AD7 AD0 lines are serving a dual purpose and that they need to be demultiplexed to get all the information. The high order bits of the address remain on the bus for three clock periods. However, the low order bits remain for only one clock period and they would be lost if they are not saved externally. Also, notice that the low order bits of the address disappear when they are needed most. To make sure we have the entire address for the full-of-the-moon three clock cycles, we go out use an external hasp to save the value of AD7 AD0 when it is carrying the address bits.We use the ALE signal to change this latch. Demultiplexing AD7-AD0 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch A7- A0 D7- D0 condition that ALE operates as a pulse during T1, we will be able to latch the address. Then when ALE goes low, the address is saved and the AD7 AD0 lines can be used for their purp ose as the bi-directional data lines. Demultiplexing the Bus AD7 AD0 The high order address is displace on the address bus and hold for 3 clk periods, The low order address is lost after the initial clk period, this address needs to be hold however we need to use latch The address AD7 AD0 is connected as inputs to the latch 74LS373.The ALE signal is connected to the enable (G) pin of the latch and the OC Output control of the latch is grounded The Overall Picture Putting all of the concepts together, we get A15- A10 Chip involveion Circuit 8085 A15-A8 ALE AD7-AD0 Latch CS A9- A0 A7- A0 1K Byte Memory Chip WR RD IO/M D7- D0 RD WR Introduction to 8085 Instructions The 8085 Instructions Since the 8085 is an 8-bit device it can have up to 28 (256) instructions. However, the 8085 only uses 246 combinations that represent a total of 74 instructions. Most of the instructions have more(prenominal) than one format. These instructions can be class into five different groups Data Transfer operations Arithmetic trading operations Logic mathematical processs separate Operations Machine Control Operations Instruction and Data Formats Each instruction has twain parts. The first part is the task or operation to be performed. This part is called the opcode (operation code). The second part is the data to be operated on Called the operand. Data Transfer Operations These operations simply COPY the data from the microbe to the destination. MOV, MVI, LDA, and STA They transfer Data between registers.Data Byte to a register or memory position. Data between a memory fixing and a register. Data between an IO Device and the accumulator. The data in the source is not changed. The cardinal instruction The 8085 provides an instruction to place the 16-bit data into the register pair in one step. LXI Rp, (Load eXtended Immediate) The instruction LXI B 4000H will place the 16-bit number 4000 into the register pair B, C. The upper two digits are placed in the 1st register of the pair and the lower two digits in the 2nd . B 40 00 C LXI B 40 00H The Memory Register Most of the instructions of the 8085 can use a memory positioning in place of a register. The memory location will become the memory register M. MOV M B copy the data from register B into a memory location. Which memory location? The memory location is identify by the circumscribe of the HL register pair. The 16-bit circumscribe of the HL register pair are hardened as a 16-bit address and used to constitute the memory location. utilize the Other Register Pairs There is also an instruction for moving data from memory to the accumulator without raise uping the limit of the H and L register. LDAX Rp (LoaD gatherer eXtended) Copy the 8-bit content of the memory location identified by the Rp register pair into the aggregator. This instruction only uses the BC or DE pair. It does not suffer the HL pair. collateral Addressing Mode Using data in mem ory directly (without corrupting first into a Microprocessors register) is called Indirect Addressing. Indirect addressing uses the data in a register pair as a 16-bit address to identify the memory location being accessed. The HL register pair is always used in conjunction with the memory register M. The BC and DE register pairs can be used to load data into the Accumultor using indirect addressing.Arithmetic Operations Addition (ADD, ADI) Any 8-bit number. The confine of a register. The content of a memory location. Can be added to the contents of the accumulator and the result is stored in the accumulator. Subtraction (SUB, SUI) Any 8-bit number The contents of a register The contents of a memory location Can be subtracted from the contents of the accumulator. The result is stored in the accumulator. Arithmetic Operations relate to Memory These instructions perform an arithmetic operation using the contents of a memory location while they are still in memory. AD D SUB INR M M M / DCR M Add the contents of M to the Accumulator Sub the contents of M from the Accumulator gain/decrement the contents of the memory location in place. All of these use the contents of the HL register pair to identify the memory location being used. Arithmetic Operations Increment (INR) and Decrement (DCR) The 8-bit contents of any memory location or any register can be directly incremented or decremented by 1. No need to disturb the contents of the accumulator. Manipulating Addresses Now that we have a 16-bit address in a register pair, how do we manipulate it? It is assertable to manipulate a 16-bit address stored in a register pair as one entity using some special instructions. INX Rp DCX Rp (Increment the 16-bit number in the register pair) (Decrement the 16-bit number in the register pair) The register pair is incremented or decremented as one entity. No need to worry about a carry from the lower 8-bits to the upper. It is interpreted care of aut omatically. Logic Operations These instructions perform logic operations on the contents of the accumulator. ANA, ANI, ORA, ORI, XRA and XRI Source Accumulator and An 8-bit number The contents of a register The contents of a memory location Destination Accumulator ANA R/M ANI ORA ORI XRA XRI R/M R/M AND Accumulator With Reg/Mem AND Accumulator With an 8-bit number OR Accumulator With Reg/Mem OR Accumulator With an 8-bit number XOR Accumulator With Reg/Mem XOR Accumulator With an 8-bit number Logic Operations Complement 1s complement of the contents of the accumulator. CMA No operand Additional Logic Operations Rotate Rotate the contents of the accumulator one position to the left or right. RLC RAL RRC RAR Rotate the accumulator left. poker chip 7 goes to bit 0 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator left through the carry.Bit 7 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 0. Rotate the accumulator right. Bit 0 goes to bit 7 AND the Carry flag. Rotate the accumulator right through the carry. Bit 0 goes to the carry and carry goes to bit 7. RLC vs. RLA Carry Flag RLC 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Carry Flag RAL 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 Accumulator Logical Operations Compare Compare the contents of a register or memory location with the contents of the accumulator. CMP R/M Compare the contents of the register or memory location to the contents of the accumulator. Compare the 8-bit number to the contents of the accumulator. CPI The compare instruction sets the flags (Z, Cy, and S). The compare is done using an internal subtraction that does not change the contents of the accumulator. A (R / M / ) Branch Operations Two types Unconditional outset. Go to a new location no matter what. Conditional branch. Go to a new location if the condition is true. Unconditional Branch JMP Address Jump to the address condition (Go to). chit-chat Address Jump to the address stipulate but apportion it as a social occasion. RET Return from a modus operan di. The addresses supplied to all branch operations must be 16-bits.Conditional Branch Go to new location if a qualify condition is met. JZ Address (Jump on Zero) Go to address specified if the Zero flag is set. JNZ Address (Jump on NOT Zero) Go to address specified if the Zero flag is not set. JC Address (Jump on Carry) Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is set. JNC Address (Jump on No Carry) Go to the address specified if the Carry flag is not set. JP JM Address (Jump on Plus) Address (Jump on Minus) Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is not set Go to the address specified if the Sign flag is set.Machine Control HLT Stop executing the program. NOP No operation Exactly as it says, do nothing. Usually used for balk or to replace instructions during debugging. Operand Types There are different ways for specifying the operand There may not be an operand (implied operand) CMA The operand may be an 8-bit number (immediate data) ADI 4FH The operand may be an internal register (register) SUB B The operand may be a 16-bit address (memory address) LDA 4000H Instruction Size Depending on the operand type, the instruction may have different sizes.It will occupy a different number of memory bytes. Typically, all instructions occupy one byte only. The ask oution is any instruction that contains immediate data or a memory address. Instructions that include immediate data use two bytes. One for the opcode and the other for the 8-bit data. Instructions that include a memory address occupy three bytes. One for the opcode, and the other two for the 16-bit address. Instruction with Immediate Date Operation Load an 8-bit number into the accumulator. MVI A, 32 Operation MVI A Operand The number 32 binary program Code 0011 1110 3E 1st byte. 011 0010 32 2nd byte. Instruction with a Memory Address Operation go to address 2085. Instruction JMP 2085 Opcode JMP Operand 2085 Binary code 1100 0011 C3 1000 0101 85 00 10 0000 20 1st byte. 2nd byte 3rd byte Addressing Modes The microprocessor has different ways of specifying the data for the instruction. These are called addressing modes. The 8085 has cardinal addressing modes Implied Immediate take aim Indirect CMA MVI B, 45 LDA 4000 LDAX B Load the accumulator with the contents of the memory location whose address is stored in the register pair BC). Data Formats In an 8-bit microprocessor, data can be represented in one of four formats ASCII BCD Signed Integer Unsigned Integer. It is important to recognize that the microprocessor deals with 0s and 1s. It deals with values as strings of bits. It is the job of the user to add a meaning to these strings. Data Formats Assume the accumulator contains the following value 0100 0001. There are four ways of reading this value It is an unsigned integer expressed in binary, the equivalent decimal number would be 65. It is a number expressed in BCD (Binary Coded Decimal) format. That wou ld make it, 41. It is an ASCII representation of a letter. That would make it the letter A. It is a string of 0s and 1s where the 0th and the 6th bits are set to 1 while all other bits are set to 0. ASCII stands for American Standard Code for discipline Interchange. sum upers & Time look intos Counters A curl forbid is set up by loading a register with a certain value Then using the DCR (to decrement) and INR (to increment) the contents of the register are updated. A hand-build is set up with a conditional jump instruction that interlaces buns or not depending on whether the count has reached the termination count.Counters The operation of a loop counter can be described using the following flowchart. format Body of loop Update the count No Is this lowest Count? Yes Sample ALP for implementing a loop Using DCR instruction MVI C, 15H handbuild DCR C JNZ LOOP Using a Register Pair as a iteration Counter Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum coun t of 255 times. It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. A minor difficulty arises in how to study for the closing count since DCX and INX do not turn the flags. However, if the loop is smell for when the count becomes zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a intertwine Counter The following is an example of a loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP grips It was shown in Chapter 2 that each instruction passes through different combinations of Fetch, Memory Read, and Memory Write cycles. knowledgeable the combinations of cycles, one can calculate how long such an instruction would require to complete. The table in Appendix F of the book contains a towboat with the title B/M/T. B for Number of Bytes M for Number of Machine wheel arounds T for Nu mber of T-State. time lags Knowing how many T-States an instruction requires, and retentiveness in mind that a T-State is one clock cycle long, we can calculate the time using the following formula Delay = No. of T-States / Frequency For example a MVI instruction uses 7 T-States. Therefore, if the Microprocessor is running at 2 MHz, the instruction would require 3. 5 Seconds to complete. Delay loops We can use a loop to produce a certain amount of time prevent in a program. The following is an example of a stand up loop MVI C, FFH LOOP DCR C JNZ LOOP 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States The first instruction initializes the loop counter and is executed only once requiring only 7 T-States. The following two instructions form a loop that requires 14 T-States to execute and is repeated 255 times until C becomes 0. Delay Loops (Contd. ) We need to keep in mind though that in the hold water iteration of the loop, the JNZ instruction will fail and require only 7 T-States rather th an the 10. Therefore, we must deduct 3 T-States from the total delay to get an accurate delay calculation. To calculate the delay, we use the following formula Tdelay = TO + TL Tdelay = total delay TO = delay outside the loop TL = delay of the loop TO is the sum of all delays outside the loop. Delay Loops (Contd. ) Using these formulas, we can calculate the time delay for the earlier example TO = 7 T-States Delay of the MVI instruction TL = (14 X 255) 3 = 3567 T-States 14 T-States for the 2 instructions repeated 255 times (FF16 = 25510) cut by the 3 T-States for the final JNZ. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter Using a single register, one can repeat a loop for a maximum count of 255 times. It is possible to increase this count by using a register pair for the loop counter instead of the single register. A minor problem arises in how to test for the final count since DCX and INX do not falsify the flags. However, if the loop is looking for when the count become s zero, we can use a small trick by ORing the two registers in the pair and then checking the zero flag. Using a Register Pair as a Loop Counter The following is an example of a delay loop set up with a register pair as the loop counter. LXI B, 1000H LOOP DCX B MOV A, C ORA B JNZ LOOP 10 T-States 6 T-States 4 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-StatesUsing a Register Pair as a Loop Counter Using the same formula from before, we can calculate TO = 10 T-States The delay for the LXI instruction TL = (24 X 4096) 3 = 98301 T- States 24 T-States for the 4 instructions in the loop repeated 4096 times (100016 = 409610) reduced by the 3 TStates for the JNZ in the last iteration. Nested Loops Nested loops can be easy setup in Assembly language by using two registers for the two loop counters and updating the right register in the right loop. In the figure, the body of loop2 can be before or after loop1.Initialize loop 2 Body of loop 2 Initialize loop 1 Body of loop 1 Update the count1 No Is th is Final Count? Yes Update the count 2 No Is this Final Count? Yes Nested Loops for Delay Instead (or in conjunction with) Register Pairs, a nested loop structure can be used to increase the total delay produced. MVI B, 10H LOOP2 MVI C, FFH LOOP1 DCR C JNZ LOOP1 DCR B JNZ LOOP2 7 T-States 7 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States 4 T-States 10 T-States Delay Calculation of Nested Loops The calculation remains the same except that it the formula must be applied recursively to each loop. Start with the inner loop, then plug that delay in the calculation of the outer(a) loop. Delay of inner loop TO1 = 7 T-States MVI C, FFH instruction TL1 = (255 X 14) 3 = 3567 T-States 14 T-States for the DCR C and JNZ instructions repeated 255 Delay Calculation of Nested Loops Delay of outer loop TO2 = 7 T-States MVI B, 10H instruction TL1 = (16 X (14 + 3574)) 3 = 57405 T-States 14 T-States for the DCR B and JNZ instructions and 3574 T-States for loop1 repeated 16 times (1016 = 1610) minus 3 for the final JNZ. TDelay = 7 + 57405 = 57412 T-States Total Delay TDelay = 57412 X 0. 5 Sec = 28. 06 millisecond Increasing the delay The delay can be further increase by using register pairs for each of the loop counters in the nested loops setup. It can also be increased by adding dummy instructions (like NOP) in the body of the loop. measure plat Representation of Various Control signals generated during writ of execution of an Instruction. Following Buses and Control Signals must be shown in a Timing plot juicyer nightspot Address Bus. Lower Address/Data bus ALE RD WR IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV A,B like cryptanalysis A000h 78 Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV A,B Corresponding cryptology A000h 78OFC 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV A,B 00h T1 T2 T3 T4 A0h A15- A8 (Higher gild Address bus) Corresponding cryptogram A000h 78 78h ALE RD OFC WR 8085 Memory IO/M Op-code fetch cycle Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MVI A,45h Correspondin g tag A000h A001h 3E 45 Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MVI A,45h OFC MEMR Corresponding secret writing A000h A001h 3E 45 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher golf club Address bus) 00h 3Eh 01h 45h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) Instruction A000h MVI A,45h Corresponding Coding A000h A001h 3E 45 WR RD ALEIO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction A000h LXI A,FO45h Corresponding Coding A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 Timing Diagram Instruction A000h LXI A,FO45h OFC MEMR MEMR Corresponding Coding A000h A001h A002h 21 45 F0 8085 Memory Timing Diagram Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Memory Read Cycle T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 A0h A0h A0h A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) 00h 21h 01h 45h 02h F0h DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding A000h 7E Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV A,MOFC MEMR Corresponding Coding A000h 7E 8085 Memory T iming Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus) Instruction A000h MOV A,M Corresponding Coding A000h 7E 00h 7Eh L Reg Content Of M DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Read Cycle Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding A000h 77 Timing Diagram Instruction A000h MOV M,A OFC MEMW Corresponding Coding A000h 77 8085 Memory Timing Diagram T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 A0h Content Of Reg H A15- A8 (Higher Order Address bus)Instruction A000h MOV M,A Corresponding Coding A000h 77 00h 7Eh L Reg Content of Reg A DA7-DA0 (Lower order address/data Bus) ALE RD WR IO/M Op-Code Fetch Cycle Memory Write Cycle Chapter 9 Stack and Sub tours The Stack The stack is an area of memory identified by the programmer for temporary storage of information. The stack is a LIFO structure. Last In First Out. The stack normally grows backwards into memory. In other words, the programmer defines the bottom of the stack and the stack grows up into reducing address range. The Stack grows backwards into memory Memory bottom(a) of the Stack The Stack Given that the stack grows backwards into memory, it is customary to place the bottom of the stack at the end of memory to keep it as far away from user programs as possible. In the 8085, the stack is define by setting the SP (Stack Pointer) register. LXI SP, FFFFH This sets the Stack Pointer to location FFFFH (end of memory for the 8085). Saving Information on the Stack Information is saved on the stack by encourageing it on. It is retrieved from the stack by come forwarding it polish off. The 8085 provides two instructions carry on and embark on for storing information on the stack and retrieving it back. Both PUSH and POP work with register pairs ONLY.The PUSH Instruction PUSH B Decrement SP Copy the contents of register B to the memory location pointed to by SP Decrement BSP C F3 12 Copy the contents of register C to the memor y location pointed to by SP F3 FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 SP The POP Instruction POP D Copy the contents of the memory location pointed to by the SP to register E Increment SP Copy the contents of the memory location D E F3 12 pointed to by the SP to register D Increment SP F3 SP FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 12 Operation of the Stack During pushing, the stack operates in a decrement then store style. The stack pointer is decremented first, then the information is placed on the stack. During poping, the stack operates in a use then increment style. The information is retrieved from the top of the the stack and then the pointer is incremented. The SP pointer always points to the top of the stack. LIFO The order of PUSHs and POPs must be inverse of each other in order to retrieve information back into its original location. PUSH B PUSH D POP D POP B The PSW Register Pair The 8085 recognizes one additional register pair called the PSW (Program Status Word). This register pair i s made up of the Accumulator and the Flags registers. It is possible to push the PSW onto the stack, do whatever operations are needed, then POP it off of the stack. The result is that the contents of the Accumulator and the status of the Flags are go byed to what they were before the operations were executed. Subroutines A subroutine is a group of instructions that will be used repeatedly in different locations of the program. quite a than repeat the same instructions several times, they can be grouped into a subroutine that is called from the different locations. In Assembly language, a subroutine can exist anywhere in the code. However, it is customary to place subroutines separately from the main program. Subroutines The 8085 has two instructions for dealing with subroutines. The environ instruction is used to redirect program execution to the subroutine. The RTE insutruction is used to take place the execution to the handicraft routine. The refer Instruction CALL 4000H Push the address of the instruction instantly following the CALL onto the stack 2000 CALL 4000 2003 counter Load the program PC 2 0 0 3with the 16-bit address supplied with the CALL instruction. FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 3 20 SP The RTE Instruction RTE Retrieve the return address from the top of the stack Load the program counter with the return address. 2003 PC 4014 4015 RTE FFFB FFFC FFFD FFFE FFFF 03 20 SP Cautions The CALL instruction places the return address at the two memory locations straightway before where the Stack Pointer is pointing. You must set the SP correctly in the lead using the CALL instruction. The RTE instruction takes the contents of the two memory locations at the top of the stack and uses these as the return address. Do not modify the stack pointer in a subroutine. You will loose the return address.Passing Data to a Subroutine In Assembly Language data is passed to a subroutine through registers. The data is stored in one of the register s by the name program and the subroutine uses the value from the register. The other possibility is to use agreed upon memory locations. The calling program stores the data in the memory location and the subroutine retrieves the data from the location and uses it. Call by Reference and Call by Value If the subroutine performs operations on the contents of the registers, then these modifications will be transferred back to the calling program upon return from a subroutine. Call by reference If this is not desired, the subroutine should PUSH all the registers it needs on the stack on entry and POP them on return. The original values are restored before execution returns to the calling program. Cautions with PUSH and POP PUSH and POP should be used in opposite order. There has to be as many POPs as there are PUSHs. If not, the RET statement will pick up the wrong information from the top of the stack and the program will fail. It is not advisable to place PUSH or POP inside a loop. Conditional CALL and RTE Instructions The 8085 supports conditional CALL and conditional RTE instructions. The same conditions used with conditional JUMP instructions can be used. CC, call subroutine if Carry flag is set. CNC, call subroutine if Carry flag is not set RC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is set RNC, return from subroutine if Carry flag is not set Etc. A Proper Subroutine According to packet Engineering practices, a proper subroutine Is only entered with a CALL and exited with an RTE Has a single entry point Do not use a CALL statement to jump into different points of the same subroutine. Has a single exit point There should be one return statement from any subroutine. Following these rules, there should not be any confusion with PUSH and POP usage. The Design and Operation of Memory Memory in a microprocessor system is where information (data and instructions) is kept. It can be classified ad into two main types ? ? Main memory (RAM and ROM) Storage memory (Disks , CD ROMs, etc. ) The simple view of RAM is that it is made up of registers that are made up of flip-flops (or memory elements). ? ROM on the other hand uses diodes instead of the flip-flops to permanently hold the information. The number of flip-flops in a memory register determines the size of the memory word. Accessing Information in Memory For the microprocessor to access (Read or Write) information in memory (RAM or ROM), it needs to do the following Select the right memory chip (using part of the address bus). Identify the memory location (using the rest of the address bus). Access the data (using the data bus). 2 Tri-State Buffers An important circuit element that is used extensively in memory. This buffer is a logic circuit that has three states Logic 0, logic1, and high impedance. When this circuit is in high impedance mode it looks as if it is disconnected from the output completely.The Output is Low The Output is High High Impedance 3 The Tri-State B uffer This circuit has two inputs and one output. The first input behaves like the normal input for the circuit. The second input is an enable. ? ? If it is set high, the output follows the proper circuit behavior. If it is set low, the output looks like a wire connected to nothing. Output Input OR Input Output Enable Enable 4 The Basic Memory divisor The basic memory element is similar to a D latch. This latch has an input where the data comes in. It has an enable input and an output on which data comes out. Data Input D Data Output QEnable EN 5 The Basic Memory Element However, this is not safe. Data is always present on the input and the output is always set to the contents of the latch. To neutralise this, tri-state buffers are added at the input and output of the latch. Data Input D Data Output Q RD Enable EN WR 6 The Basic Memory Element The WR signal controls the input buffer. The bar over WR means that this is an lively low signal. So, if WR is 0 the input data reaches th e latch input. If WR is 1 the input of the latch looks like a wire connected to nothing. The RD signal controls the output in a similar manner. A Memory Register If we take four of these latches and connect them together, we would have a 4-bit memory register I0 WR I1 I2 I3 D Q EN EN RD D Q EN D Q EN D Q EN O0 O1 O2 O3 8 A group of memory registers D0 o D1 o o D2 o D3 WR D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q Expanding on this scheme to add more memory registers we get the diagram to the right. EN D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q D EN Q o o o o RD D0 D1 D2 9 D3 remotely Initiated Operations External devices can initiate (start) one of the 4 following operations fix ?All operations are stopped and the program counter is reset to 0000. The microprocessors operations are interrupted and the microprocessor executes what is called a service routine. This routine handles the interrupt, (perform the necessary operations). Then the microprocessor returns to i ts previous operations and continues. Interrupt ? ? 10 A group of Memory Registers If we represent each memory location (Register) as a block we get the following I0 I1 I2 I3 WR EN0 EN1 EN2 EN3 RD O0 Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers O1 O2 O3 11The Design of a Memory Chip Using the RD and WR controls we can determine the direction of flow either into or out of memory. Then using the appropriate Enable input we enable an individual memory register. What we have just designed is a memory with 4 locations and each location has 4 elements (bits). This memory would be called 4 X 4 Number of location X number of bits per location. 12 The Enable Inputs How do we produce these enable line? Since we can never have more than one of these enables active at the same time, we can have them encoded to reduce the number of lines coming into the chip.These encoded lines are the address lines for memory. 13 The Design of a Memory Chip So, the previo us diagram would now look like the following I I I I 0 1 2 3 WR A d d r e s s D e c o d e r Input Buffers Memory Reg. 0 Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. 3 Output Buffers A1 A0 RD O0 O1 O2 O3 14 The Design of a Memory Chip Since we have tri-state buffers on both the inputs and outputs of the flip flops, we can actually use one set of pins only. Input Buffers WR A1 A0 A D The chip Memory Reg. now look likeDthis would 0 d e 0 D0 A1 A0 D1 D2 D3 d r e s s c o d e r Memory Reg. 1 Memory Reg. 2 Memory Reg. Output Buffers D1 D2 D3 RD RD WR 15 The steps of writing into Memory What happens when the programmer issues the STA instruction? The microprocessor would turn on the WR control (WR = 0) and turn off the RD control (RD = 1). The address is applied to the address decoder which generates a single Enable signal to turn on only one of the memory registers. The data is then applied on the data lines and it is stored into the enabled register. 16 Dimensions of Memory Memory is usually m easured by two numbers its continuance and its width (Length X Width). ? ? The length is the total number of locations.The width is the number of bits in each location. The length (total number of locations) is a function of the number of address lines. of memory locations = 2( of address lines) 210 = 1024 locations (1K) ? So, a memory chip with 10 address lines would have Looking at it from the other side, a memory chip with 4K locations would need ? Log2 4096=12 address lines 17 The 8085 and Memory The 8085 has 16 address lines. That means it can address 216 = 64K memory locations. Then it will need 1 memory chip with 64 k locations, or 2 chips with 32 K in each, or 4 with 16 K each or 16 of the 4 K chips, etc. ow would we use these address lines to control the multiple chips? 18 Chip Select Usually, each memory chip has a CS (Chip Select) input. The chip will only work if an active signal is applied on that input. To allow the use of multiple chips in the make up of memory, we need to use a number of the address lines for the purpose of chip selection. These address lines are decoded to generate the 2n necessary CS inputs for the memory chips to be used. 19 Chip Selection caseful Assume that we need to build a memory system made up of 4 of the 4 X 4 memory chips we designed earlier.We will need to use 2 inputs and a decoder to identify which chip will be used at what time. The resulting design would now look like the one on the following slide. 20 Chip Selection Example RD WR D0 D1 RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS RD WR A0 A1 CS A0 A1 A2 A3 2 X4 Decoder 21 Memory Map and Addresses The memory map is a picture representation of the address range and shows where the different memory chips are located within the address range. 0000 0000 EPROM 3FFF 4400 Address Range of EPROM Chip Address Range RAM 1 RAM 2 RAM 3 Address Range of 1st RAM Chip 5FFF 6000 Address Range of 2nd RAM Chip FFF 9000 A3FF A400 Address Range of 3rd RAM Chip RAM 4 F7FF FFFF A ddress Range of 4th RAM Chip 22 Address Range of a Memory Chip The address range of a particular chip is the list of all addresses that are mapped to the chip. An example for the address range and its relationship to the memory chips would be the Post positioning Boxes in the post office. Each quoin has its unique number that is assigned sequentially. (memory locations) The boxes are grouped into groups. (memory chips) The first box in a group has the number immediately after the last box in the previous group. 23 Address Range of a Memory ChipThe above example can be modified slightly to make it closer to our give-and-take on memory. Lets say that this post office has only 1000 boxes. Lets also say that these are grouped into 10 groups of 100 boxes each. Boxes 0000 to 0099 are in group 0, boxes 0100 to 0199 are in group 1 and so on. We can look at the box number as if it is made up of two pieces The group number and the boxs index within the group. So, box number 436 is t he thirty-sixth box in the 4th group. The upper digit of the box number identifies the group and the lower two digits identify the box within the group. 24The 8085 and Address Ranges The 8085 has 16 address lines. So, it can address a total of 64K memory locations. If we use memory chips with 1K locations each, then we will need 64 such chips. The 1K memory chip needs 10 address lines to uniquely identify the 1K locations. (log21024 = 10) That leaves 6 address lines which is the exact number needed for selecting between the 64 different chips (log264 = 6). 25 The 8085 and Address Ranges Now, we can break up the 16-bit address of the 8085 into two pieces A15 A14 A13 A12 A11 A10 A9 A8 A7 A6 A5 A4 A3 A2 A1 A0 Chip Selection Location Selection within the ChipDepending on the combination on the address lines A15 A10 , the address range of the specified chip is determined. 26 Chip Select Example A chip that uses the combination A15 A10 = 001000 would have addresses that range from 2000H to 23FFH. Keep in mind that the 10 address lines on the chip gives a range of 00 0000 0000 to 11 1111 1111 or 000H to 3FFH for each of the chips. The memory chip in this example would require the following circuit on its chip select input A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CS 27 Chip Select Example If we change the above combination to the following A 10 A 11 A 12 A 13 A 14 A 15 CSNow the chip would have addresses ranging from 2400 to 27FF. Changing the combination of the address bits connected to the chip select changes the address range for the memory chip. 28 Chip Select Example To illustrate this with a picture ? ? in the first case, the memory chip occupies the piece of the memory map identified as before. In the second case, it occupies the piece identified as after. before After 0000 2000 23FF 2400 27FF 0000 FFFF FFFF 29 High-Order vs. Low-Order Address Lines The address lines from a microprocessor can be classified into two types High-Order ? Low-Order ?